Community-managed forested landscapes are complex social-ecological systems that supply a variety of ecosystem services (ES) to society. The flow of these services depends on land use and land cover (LULC) changes, ecological factors such as types, pattern and composition of vegetation, as well as anthropogenic factors. ES assessment helps to deal with the complexity of the interrelationships among LULC, ES supply and societal benefits. Using the case of the Phewa watershed, Nepal, this paper presents a quantitative and qualitative assessment of priority ES to understand how the supply of ES and their societal benefits have changed over the past 40 years. LULC changes were analysed using satellite images, ecosystem services were assessed using biophysical data and expressed spatially using ArcGIS. Results reveal a substantial reversal of land degradation and indicate forest recovery over the last 40 years. Dense forests increased by 1471 ha (88%) while sparse forests, grasslands and agricultural lands declined by 26%, 77% and 15%, respectively. These significant changes in LULC had a positive impact on ES due to the conversion of agricultural/grasslands and degraded forests to dense forests. ES varied significantly across the watershed. Dense forests provided relatively higher sediment retention (soil erosion rate decreased from > 30 ton ha(1) yr(1) to < 15 ton ha(-1) yr(-1)), carbon stocks (from < 50 m(3) ha(-1) to > 100 m(3) ha(-1)), habitat provision, and raw materials than other types of land cover, but reduced the water discharge. Increased aesthetic value from the restored landscape provides higher opportunities for recreation and ecotourism. Analysis of benefit-relevant indicators revealed that the perceived societal benefits from most of the ES were significantly lower than the potential supply of ES in the watershed.
From the late 1970s on, local people began to participate in restoring degraded forests and were granted formal rights to utilise forest pro- ducts with support from the government and donor agencies… the initiation of the government’s decentralised forestry policy with provision for local community participation in forest management from the late 1970s proved to be a useful tool for CBF and watershed conservation…. During the 1970s and 1980s, the government and local communities planted trees in a large area of barren land and conserved degraded forests with support from bilateral aid projects … large parts of forests have been set aside as ‘protected regions’ … creation of plantations also mentioned (CRT)
Climate change impacts | Effect of Nbs on CCI | Effect measures |
---|---|---|
Reduced water availability | Positive | Outcome measures are ‘Benefit-relevant Indicators’ listed below as determined through combination of biophysical data collected from area + perceptions of six up- stream community forest user groups (CFUGs), downstream business people and experts were consulted using focus group discussions to understand their perceptions and opinions for qualitative assessment of E and their benefits to society. Soil erosion: Annual sediment load to the Lake (ton ha−1 yr−1) Landslides: Number and impact of landslides (Severe, low or no) Water quality: Annual sediment load to the Lake (ton ha−1 yr−1) Water availability: Amount and duration of dry season flow for hydropower (m3 ha−1 yr−1/number of months (or days)) **Positive for all impacts |
Reduced water quality | Positive | Outcome measures are ‘Benefit-relevant Indicators’ listed below as determined through combination of biophysical data collected from area + perceptions of six up- stream community forest user groups (CFUGs), downstream business people and experts were consulted using focus group discussions to understand their perceptions and opinions for qualitative assessment of E and their benefits to society. Soil erosion: Annual sediment load to the Lake (ton ha−1 yr−1) Landslides: Number and impact of landslides (Severe, low or no) Water quality: Annual sediment load to the Lake (ton ha−1 yr−1) Water availability: Amount and duration of dry season flow for hydropower (m3 ha−1 yr−1/number of months (or days)) **Positive for all impacts |
Mudslides / Landslides | Positive | Outcome measures are ‘Benefit-relevant Indicators’ listed below as determined through combination of biophysical data collected from area + perceptions of six up- stream community forest user groups (CFUGs), downstream business people and experts were consulted using focus group discussions to understand their perceptions and opinions for qualitative assessment of E and their benefits to society. Soil erosion: Annual sediment load to the Lake (ton ha−1 yr−1) Landslides: Number and impact of landslides (Severe, low or no) Water quality: Annual sediment load to the Lake (ton ha−1 yr−1) Water availability: Amount and duration of dry season flow for hydropower (m3 ha−1 yr−1/number of months (or days)) **Positive for all impacts |
Soil erosion | Positive | Outcome measures are ‘Benefit-relevant Indicators’ listed below as determined through combination of biophysical data collected from area + perceptions of six up- stream community forest user groups (CFUGs), downstream business people and experts were consulted using focus group discussions to understand their perceptions and opinions for qualitative assessment of E and their benefits to society. Soil erosion: Annual sediment load to the Lake (ton ha−1 yr−1) Landslides: Number and impact of landslides (Severe, low or no) Water quality: Annual sediment load to the Lake (ton ha−1 yr−1) Water availability: Amount and duration of dry season flow for hydropower (m3 ha−1 yr−1/number of months (or days)) **Positive for all impacts |
the Phewa watershed which includes a combination of urban, peri-urban and rural landscapes. It has a four- decade history of participatory watershed conservation and CBF and contains a variety of forest types. It lies between 28°11′39′′ and 28°17′25′′ north and 83°47′51′′ and 83°59′17′′ east, adjacent to the city of Pokhara. It covers an area of 12,300 hectares and extends over the whole or parts of six former village development committees and seven wards of the southwestern part of Pokhara Metropolitan City