Spatial heterogeneous response of land use and landscape functions to ecological restoration: the case of the Chinese loess hilly region
Abstract
Ecological restorations over time may have profound effects on ecological and socio-economic systems. However, land-use changes and landscape functions that accompany ecological restorations can have spatial differentiations due to varied biophysical and socio-economic contexts. Therefore, these spatial differentiations caused by ecological restoration must be understood for better planning and management of restoration activities. The Baota District, with 576 villages in the center of the Chinese Loess Plateau, was selected as the study area because of its dramatic transition from cropland to grassland and shrubland from 1990 to 2010. Using the ArcGIS software and a k-means clustering analysis, an approach to identify types of land-use change patterns (TLCPs) at the village level was developed, and four TLCPs were delineated. The analysis indicated a general pattern of cropland decline by 21.6 %, but revealed significant spatial variations between villages in different TLCPs. Vegetation cover and soil retention, which are key proxies for landscape functions, increased by 22.70 and 108 %, respectively, from 2000 to 2010 with significant spatial heterogeneity. The Universal Soil Loss Equation was employed for the assessment of soil retention. The analysis of landscape metrics revealed a major trend of fragmentation and regularity on the county and village scale; however, spatial variations remained. Physical attributes were used to characterize different TLCPs, and notable differences were found. The spatial heterogeneous change in land use and landscape functions on the village scale may be useful for land use and ecological restoration management policy makers.
Case studies
Basic information
- Case ID: INT-209-2
- Intervention type: Created habitats
- Intervention description:
main practice of this reforestation project was converting cropland on steep slopes (C25°) or cropland with low yield into forests, which induced significant land-use changes along with reducing soil erosion….this area was selected as one of the pioneer and demonstration areas for the large- scale ecological restoration project that was known as Grain to Green in China ... In the study area, the main deciduous tree species of afforestation was black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.), and it would take more than 10 years for locust seedlings to become large trees under the semi-arid climate...Thus, in 2010, the newly reforested land still appeared as shrubland in canopy density and spectral features.
- Landscape/sea scape ecosystem management:
Yes
-
Climate change impacts |
Effect of Nbs on CCI |
Effect measures |
Soil erosion |
Positive |
Soil retention (t km 2 year 1) calculated using the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) |
Biomass cover loss |
Positive |
vegetation cover fraction (%) determined from NDVI |
- Approach implemented in the field:
Yes
- Specific location:
Baota district is in the center of the Yan’an prefecture in the Northern Shaanxi province of the Loess Plateau,
- Country: China
- Habitat/Biome type: Created forest |
- Issue specific term: Not applicable
Evidence
- Notes on intervention effectivness: measure change in parameter over time over the landscape in order to infer effectiveness of the intervention.
For biomass cover loss, effort to see how vegetation cover changed in areas linked to the intervention: "The results showed that the GTGP caused a sharper increase in the vegetation cover, particularly in areas where cropland transferred to shrubland. Converting cropland to shrubland was a better practice than converting cropland to grassland concerning vegetation recovery in the study area."
For soil erosion, but no formal analysis to link outcome measure to intervention (just assume that changes in the parameters were because of the intervention)
economic outcomes: report income changes
- Is the assessment original?: Yes
- Broadtype of intervention considered:
Another NbS
- Compare effectivness?: No
- Compared to the non-NBS approach:
Not applicable
- Report greenhouse gas mitigation?: No
- Impacts on GHG:
Not applicable
- Assess outcomes of the intervention on natural ecosystems: No
- Impacts for the ecosystem:
Not reported
- Ecosystem measures:
- Assess outcomes of the intervention on people: No
- Impacts for people:
Not reported
- People measures:
- Considers economic costs: Yes
- Economic appraisal conducted: No
- Economic appraisal described:
- Economic costs of alternative considered: No
- Compared to an alternative:
Not reported
Evaluation methodology
- Type of data:
Quantitative
- Is it experimental: No
- Experimental evalution done:
Not applicable
- Non-experimental evalution done:
Empirical case study
- Study is systematic:
Basic information
- Case ID: INT-209-1
- Intervention type: Created habitats
- Intervention description:
main practice of this reforestation project was converting cropland on steep slopes (C25°) or cropland with low yield into forests, which induced significant land-use changes along with reducing soil erosion….this area was selected as one of the pioneer and demonstration areas for the large- scale ecological restoration project that was known as Grain to Green in China ... In the study area, the main deciduous tree species of afforestation was black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.), and it would take more than 10 years for locust seedlings to become large trees under the semi-arid climate...Thus, in 2010, the newly reforested land still appeared as shrubland in canopy density and spectral features.
- Landscape/sea scape ecosystem management:
Yes
-
Climate change impacts |
Effect of Nbs on CCI |
Effect measures |
Soil erosion |
Positive |
Soil retention (t km 2 year 1) calculated using the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) |
Biomass cover loss |
Positive |
vegetation cover fraction (%) determined from NDVI |
- Approach implemented in the field:
Yes
- Specific location:
Baota district is in the center of the Yan’an prefecture in the Northern Shaanxi province of the Loess Plateau,
- Country: China
- Habitat/Biome type: Created grassland |
- Issue specific term: Not applicable
Evidence
- Notes on intervention effectivness: measure change in parameter over time over the landscape in order to infer effectiveness of the intervention.
For biomass cover loss, effort to see how vegetation cover changed in areas linked to the intervention: "The results showed that the GTGP caused a sharper increase in the vegetation cover, particularly in areas where cropland transferred to shrubland. Converting cropland to shrubland was a better practice than converting cropland to grassland concerning vegetation recovery in the study area."
For soil erosion, but no formal analysis to link outcome measure to intervention (just assume that changes in the parameters were because of the intervention)
economic outcomes: report income changes
- Is the assessment original?: Yes
- Broadtype of intervention considered:
Another NbS
- Compare effectivness?: No
- Compared to the non-NBS approach:
Not applicable
- Report greenhouse gas mitigation?: No
- Impacts on GHG:
Not applicable
- Assess outcomes of the intervention on natural ecosystems: No
- Impacts for the ecosystem:
Not reported
- Ecosystem measures:
- Assess outcomes of the intervention on people: No
- Impacts for people:
Not reported
- People measures:
- Considers economic costs: Yes
- Economic appraisal conducted: No
- Economic appraisal described:
- Economic costs of alternative considered: No
- Compared to an alternative:
Not reported
Evaluation methodology
- Type of data:
Quantitative
- Is it experimental: No
- Experimental evalution done:
Not applicable
- Non-experimental evalution done:
Empirical case study
- Study is systematic: